Category: Planetary, extraterrestrial geology, and meteoritics

There is little doubt that it can be done, but what is so compelling about the search for worlds that orbit other stars?

By the end of the 21^st century’s first decade 500 such exoplanets had been discovered, ranging from super gas giants almost 10 thousand times the mass of the Earth to a few that are comparable in size to our home world. At present the records of size and orbital radius are biased by the relative ease

of detecting large bodies over that of Earth-sized objects. Another bias is the greater chance of observing the change in luminosity of a star as one of its planets passes between us and the star – a transit – if the planet’s orbital period is short, being close to the star. The majority of known exoplanets are less than about 8 times the Earth’s orbital radius (1 astronomical unit or AU) away from their star, although some truly huge bodies have been spotted that are up to a thousand times more remote from a star than ours is.

The rate of discovery is set to burgeon now that data from NASA’s Kepler exoplanet-finding mission, launched in 2009, is producing data (Reich, E.S. 2011. Beyond the stars. Nature, v. 470, p. 24-26). The 0.95 m Kepler space telescope gazes continually at a patch of sky containing 150 thousand Milky Way stars, many of which are like the Sun. It uses the transit method, and because it is fixed on only one star field it can potentially pick up the variation of stars’ luminosity due to transiting planets that are about the size of the Earth and larger. The computations are, unsurprisingly, massive and any dips in the light curves for pixels that represent individual stars have to be confirmed by other methods or by Kepler detecting repeats of the fluctuation. One drawback is that the transit method only provides the radius of a planet and its orbital period. Mass is needed to work out an exoplanet’s density and that requires another method using the red-shift of a star due to the gravitational effect of a planet causing it to wobble; a technique fraught with difficulties and best applied to dwarf red stars. The density is important for discriminating silicate-rich exoplanets from gas-liquid bodies. The main aim of planet finders is to find those around the same size and mass as the Earth that orbit a star at a distance where they would be warm enough for liquid water to exist but not so warm that it existed only as a vapour: in the so-called ‘Goldilocks zone’.

There was an initial flurry of excitement in the press in 2010 when a scientist on the Kepler programme was misinterpreted while giving a conference presentation that resulted in headlines that hundreds of distant Earths had already been discovered in the experiment’s first year. So far Kepler has only 15 confirmed planets to its credit that range from 800 times to twice the Earth’s radius all with orbits less than that of the Earth around the Sun. Nonetheless, a couple orbit within their star’s Goldilocks zone. So there is a way to go before real excitement is justified, but Kepler data will undoubtedly be used to seek funds for other planet-dedicated programmes that can fill in the gaps and perhaps confirm the existence of distant worlds that bear some resemblance to ours. Out of Kepler’s 1235 candidate detections since launch, 68 would be Earth-sized if confirmed (Shiga, D. 2011. What’s an alien solar system like? New Scientist, v. 209 (26 February 2011 issue) p. 6-7). For such remote detection to suggest an exoplanet on which life has evolved demands that atmospheric composition can be deduced from spectra of electromagnetic radiation from the body itself: a far more difficult undertaking that finding and weighing. Free atmospheric oxygen, so far unique to the Earth, is an obvious target. However, its absence would not rule out life that did not use photosynthesis to split water molecules in making living matter, and there are plenty of life forms here that do that.

Related Articles

• Video: Kepler’s Exoplanets vs. the Solar System (wired.com)
• The New Kepler exoplanet data – NASA videos and pictures (nextbigfuture.com)

There are two main hypotheses about the origin of Earth’s oceans: that they are filled with water that was locked in the meteoritic matter that initially accreted to form the Earth, or ocean water was delivered by massive comet bombardment in the first half billion years of the Earth’s history. It hasn’t yet been possible to decide whether one of these, or both were  involved, but the Moon might give a clue, even though until very recently it was regarded as being bone dry (see Moon rocks turn out to be wetter and stranger in May 2010 issue of EPN). The ratio between deuterium and hydrogen (D/H) gives a clue to the origin of water, in which both hydrogen isotopes occur (Greenwood, J.P. et al. 2011. Hydrogen isotope ratios in lunar rocks indicate delivery of cometary water to the Moon. Nature Geoscience, v. 4, p. 79-82). Using an ion microprobe to analyse the water in apatite, its dominant host in lunar rock samples, the authors were able to report two things. First, there is water in magmatic rocks of all ages found on the Moon: the earliest anorthosites of the lunar highlands and the younger basalts that fill the dark maria. Secondly, the water has D/H ratios significantly outside the terrestrial range. In detail, apatites with the greatest enrichment of deuterium relative to hydrogen are found in the maria basalts which fill enormous basins thought to have formed around 4 Ga ago as a result of cometary impacts. The D/H ratios are lower in apatites from the lunar highland anorthosites, which probably formed through flotation of low density calcium-rich feldspar as the Moon’s initially molten mantle crystallized not long after its formation through the impact of a small planet with the Earth. The highland D/H values are not wildly dissimilar from those found on Earth, yet those found in the mare basalts match the admittedly less well-constrained levels determined from comets hale-Bopp, Hyakutake and Halley. Because the Earth’s mass would ensure that it would corral 15 times more incoming extraterrestrial matter than would the Moon, the argument goes that if the Moon captured cometary water then Earth did so in trumps. The difference is that the Earths greater gravitational pull and thick atmosphere allowed it to retain gaseous and liquid water, while the Moon’s lower escape velocity let them leak away so that only mineralogically bound water could be retained.

Related Articles

• Caltech Team Finds Evidence of Water in Moon Minerals (media.caltech.edu)

Such has been the urge to leap on the impact theory of Earth system change, that virtually every drastic event recorded in the geological timescale has been linked by someone or other to the effects of bombardment by extraterrestrial objects. The most recent concerns the Younger Dryas and the extinction of the mammoths (see Whizz-bang view of Younger Dryas and Impact cause for Younger Dryas draws flak in EPN July 2007 and May 2008). The hypothesis stemmed from reports of an association of tiny magnetic spherules, soot and purported nanodiamonds and fullerenes (carbon molecules bonded into ‘geodesic’ spheres) with the onset of the Younger Dryas, the roughly coincident disappearance of Clovis tools and the demise of several large North American mammal species, including mammoths. Regular columnist for Science magazine, Richard Kerr, reports that independent searches for all the evidential materials at the sites where they were said to occur have drawn unrelieved blanks (Kerr, R.A. 2010. Mammoth-killer impact flunks out , Science, v. 329, p. 1140-1141). Nonetheless, the core supporters of the hypothesis are clinging to their guns.

Such has been the urge to leap on the impact theory of Earth system change, that virtually every drastic event recorded in the geological timescale has been linked by someone or other to the effects of bombardment by extraterrestrial objects. The most recent concerns the Younger Dryas and the extinction of the mammoths (see Whizz-bang view of Younger Dryas and Impact cause for Younger Dryas draws flak in EPN July 2007 and May 2008). The hypothesis stemmed from reports of an association of tiny magnetic spherules, soot and purported nanodiamonds and fullerenes (carbon molecules bonded into ‘geodesic’ spheres) with the onset of the Younger Dryas, the roughly coincident disappearance of Clovis tools and the demise of several large North American mammal species, including mammoths. Regular columnist for Science magazine, Richard Kerr,  reports that independent searches for all the evidential materials at the sites where they were said to occur have drawn unrelieved blanks (Kerr, R.A. 2010. Mammoth-killer impact flunks out , Science, v. 329, p. 1140-1141). Nonetheless, the core supporters of the hypothesis are clinging to their guns.

Ancient valley systems, huge water-carved gorges and sedimentary deposits signify with little room for doubt that early in its history Mars was wet; it must therefore have been warm. A thick CO2-rich atmosphere seems obligatory to give the kind of greenhouse warming that prevented Earth from freezing over when the young Sun was weaker than now. The question is, where did the CO2 go so that the planet became chilled? Gravity on Mars is sufficient to have retained the gas, unlike water vapour that dissociates to hydrogen and oxygen, of which hydrogen easily escapes even a much stronger gravitational field. A consensus is developing that it resides in carbonate minerals. The other likely greenhouse gas is sulfur dioxide, for whose drawdown there is ample evidence in the form of sulfates detected from orbit and by surface rovers. Carbonates have a relatively simple, and unique spectrum of reflected solar radiation, with an absorption feature at a wavelength around 2.3 micrometres. Carbonates have been detected on Mars using orbital hyperspectral imaging, but only in patches. The NASA rovers rely on serendipity for any discovery, yet Spirit did stumble on a large carbonate-rich outcrop identified by its on-board Mössbauer spectrometer (Morris, R.V. and 12 others 2010. Identification of carbonate-rich outcrops on Mars by the Spirit rover. Science, v. 329, p. 421-424). It appears to be a Fe-Mg variety in association with olivines, and carbonate makes up to 34 % of part of the outcrop. The texture is granular, yet the area abounds with evidence for hydrothermal activity in the form of sulfates and silica-rich materials, implying that some kind of circulation system deposited the carbonates. The associated olivine is odd, as that mineral is prone to rapid breakdown to serpentines in the presence of water.

The discovery of carbonate rock does help the CO2 early greenhouse theory and the fate of the warming gas, but aside from the fact the identification has been done at vast distance does it rank with geoscience that can be accomplished on Earth? It is a small piece in the jigsaw of Mars’s climatic evolution, but cannot resolve the issue of drawdown of greenhouse gas. The real drama there lay in the finding of abundant signs of water erosion on many scales set against today’s surface hyperaridity; evidence for glaciation and subsurface water ice in apparently large volumes. Earth had to have had a thick CO2-rich atmosphere at the same time as that of Mars, but we are still not sure where all that carbon ended up in the early Precambrian, despite limestones and carbon-rich mudstones dating back to 3.4 Ga: as we cannot quantify that aspect of Earth’s history, neither can we expect an early answer for Mars. Indeed, what is the benefit set against the cost?

See also: Harvey, P. 2010. Carbonates and Martian climate. Science, v. 329, p. 400-401.

Regular readers will remember my remarkable though very reluctant conversion to the notion that there may be water on Mars. My stubborn reaction had been against the background that shrouded the hypothesis with a certain desperation; the need of any future crewed mission to Mars for a water supply and thereby one of hydrogen fuel, plus the determination of the whole Mars-oriented community to justify such a mission by hyping ‘xenobiology’ on the ‘Red Planet’. A similar desperation claoked the search for surface water on the Moon, although one more dominated by the ‘Everest’ syndrome: since the boot prints and flags appeared, everyone wants to go. The Moons internal water is an entirely different kettle of fish. The hypothesis of the Moon’s formation by condensation from an incandescent mass flung into orbit after a planet – planet collision involving the Earth has the corollary that the lunar mantle ought to be bone dry: and so it seemed to be from bulk analyses of rocks brought back by the Apollo missions. In fact, there are a number of possibilities to explain vanishingly small amounts of internal water: the Moon is made of impactor that happened to be dry rather than terrestrial material; Earth and Moon are a mix of both and both Earth and impactor started out dry, but the Earth later received its water from comets; low pressure condensation of the Moon ruled out water entering itss silicate minerals and so on. Then water was found in apatite grains from lunar maria basalts (see Moon rocks turn out to be wetter and stranger in May 2010 issue of EPN). Within a couple of months we are back to the dry-as-an-alco’s-throat view (Sharp, Z.D. et al. 2010. The chlorine isotope composition of the Moon and implications for an anhydrous mantle. Science, v. 329, p. 1050-1053). Both terrestrial and meteoritic chlorine isotopes are in remarkably consistent proportions, but lunar rocks show an 25 times greater spread by comparison. To cut a long and complicated discussion short, such a range could only have formed if chlorides of a variety of metals were vaporised from lunar magmas each having its own effect on fractionation of Cl isotopes. In turn, combination of chlorine with metal ions requires virtually no hydrogen ions and therefore vanishingly little water in the moon, otherwise chlorine would have been combined in HCl and not subject to any fractionation when that volatilised on eruption. So that seems settled, then…

Regular readers will remember my remarkable though very reluctant conversion to the notion that there may be water on Mars. My stubborn reaction had been against the background that shrouded the hypothesis with a certain desperation; the need of any future crewed mission to Mars for a water supply and thereby one of hydrogen fuel, plus the determination of the whole Mars-oriented community to justify such a mission by hyping ‘xenobiology’ on the ‘Red Planet’. A similar desperation claoked the search for surface water on the Moon, although one more dominated by the ‘Everest’ syndrome: since the boot prints and flags appeared, everyone wants to go. The Moons internal water is an entirely different kettle of fish. The hypothesis of the Moon’s formation by condensation from an incandescent mass flung into orbit after a planet – planet collision involving the Earth has the corollary that the lunar mantle ought to be bone dry: and so it seemed to be from bulk analyses of rocks brought back by the Apollo missions. In fact, there are a number of possibilities to explain vanishingly small amounts of internal water: the Moon is made of impactor that happened to be dry rather than terrestrial material; Earth and Moon are a mix of both and both Earth and impactor started out dry, but the Earth later received its water from comets; low pressure condensation of the Moon ruled out water entering itss silicate minerals and so on. Then water was found in apatite grains from lunar maria basalts (see Moon rocks turn out to be wetter and stranger in May 2010 issue of EPN). Within a couple of months we are back to the dry-as-an-alco’s-throat view (Sharp, Z.D. et al. 2010. The chlorine isotope composition of the Moon and implications for an anhydrous mantle. Science, v. 329, p. 1050-1053). Both terrestrial and meteoritic chlorine isotopes are in remarkably consistent proportions, but lunar rocks show an 25 times greater spread by comparison. To cut a long and complicated discussion short, such a range could only have formed if chlorides of a variety of metals were vaporised from lunar magmas each having its own effect on fractionation of Cl isotopes. In turn, combination of chlorine with metal ions requires virtually no hydrogen ions and therefore vanishingly little water in the moon, otherwise chlorine would have been combined in HCl and not subject to any fractionation when that volatilised on eruption. So that seems settled, then…

Carbonates on Mars

Ancient valley systems, huge water-carved gorges and sedimentary deposits signify with little room for doubt that early in its history Mars was wet; it must therefore have been warm. A thick CO₂-rich atmosphere seems obligatory to give the kind of greenhouse warming that prevented Earth from freezing over when the young Sun was weaker than now. The question is, where did the CO₂ go so that the planet became chilled? Gravity on Mars is sufficient to have retained the gas, unlike water vapour that dissociates to hydrogen and oxygen, of which hydrogen easily escapes even a much stronger gravitational field. A consensus is developing that it resides in carbonate minerals. The other likely greenhouse gas is sulfur dioxide, for whose drawdown there is ample evidence in the form of sulfates detected from orbit and by surface rovers. Carbonates have a relatively simple, and unique spectrum of reflected solar radiation, with an absorption feature at a wavelength around 2.3 micrometres. Carbonates have been detected on Mars using orbital hyperspectral imaging, but only in patches. The NASA rovers rely on serendipity for any discovery, yet Spirit did stumble on a large carbonate-rich outcrop identified by its on-board Mössbauer spectrometer (Morris, R.V. and 12 others 2010. Identification of carbonate-rich outcrops on Mars by the Spirit rover. Science, v. 329, p. 421-424). It appears to be a Fe-Mg variety in association with olivines, and carbonate makes up to 34 % of part of the outcrop. The texture is granular, yet the area abounds with evidence for hydrothermal activity in the form of sulfates and silica-rich materials, implying that some kind of circulation system deposited the carbonates. The associated olivine is odd, as that mineral is prone to rapid breakdown to serpentines in the presence of water.

The discovery of carbonate rock does help the CO₂ early greenhouse theory and the fate of the warming gas, but aside from the fact the identification has been done at vast distance does it rank with geoscience that can be accomplished on Earth? It is a small piece in the jigsaw of Mars’s climatic evolution, but cannot resolve the issue of drawdown of greenhouse gas. The real drama there lay in the finding of abundant signs of water erosion on many scales set against today’s surface hyperaridity; evidence for glaciation and subsurface water ice in apparently large volumes. Earth had to have had a thick CO₂-rich atmosphere at the same time as that of Mars, but we are still not sure where all that carbon ended up in the early Precambrian, despite limestones and carbon-rich mudstones dating back to 3.4 Ga: as we cannot quantify that aspect of Earth’s history, neither can we expect an early answer for Mars. Indeed, what is the benefit set against the cost?

See also: Harvey, P. 2010. Carbonates and Martian climate. Science, v. 329, p. 400-401.

Since the original analyses of lunar rock samples brought back by the Apollo astronauts is has been widely accepted that they are almost totally anhydrous. Some even contain pristine metallic iron with not a trace of rust after more than 4 billion years. So, therefore, the entire Moon should be bone dry, except for possible rimes of ice preserved in deeply shadowed polar craters. This lack of water is one line of evidence used to support the Moon’s origin in a stupendous collision between the early Earth and a smaller companion planet shortly after their accretion. The event may have depleted volatile elements and compounds in the incandescent vaporised rock from which the Moon is believed to have condensed. There are traces of water in glass spherules from lunar dust, but that might have come from the impactors that blasted them from craters. But at this year’s Lunar and Planetary Science Conference – the fortieth since the first Apollo landing – evidence for water in lunar minerals was presented (Hand, E. 2010. Old rocks drown dry Moon theory. Nature, v. 464, p. 150-151). The water is in apatite grains that occur as crystals in lunar maria basalts, so must have come from the Moon’s mantle through partial melting. Modelling suggests tens of thousand time more water in the lunar interior than believed previously, albeit still much less than in the Earth. Equally surprising is the water’s isotopic composition: it has a much greater proportion of deuterium (²H) relative to hydrogen (¹H) than does water in terrestrial igneous rocks. The giant impact hypothesis suggests that the proportions should be the same in both bodies. One possibility is that a fortuitous comet delivered water to a dried-out hot moon soon after it has coalesced from and orbiting incandescent cloud. Hopefully a full publication will appear soon.

Because the Earth’s mantle is rich in volatiles which escape from magmas that reach the surface, it has long been assumed that our planet’s atmosphere was self-produced by exhalation. But it turns out that noble gases in such exhalations do not match those in the atmosphere isotopically (Holland, G. et al. 2009. Meteorite Kr in Earth’s mantle suggests a late accretionary source for the atmosphere. Science, v. 326, p. 1522-1525). Greg Holland and colleagues from the Universities of Manchester and Houston measured krypton and xenon isotopes in volcanic CO₂ emissions from New Mexico, and found that their proportions matched those in carbonaceous chondrites as does the Kr/Xe ratio. Those in the atmosphere are significantly different, resembling the values in the Sun. Comets may have delivered these gases after the original accretion of the Earth and the catastrophic formation of the Moon.

Long, long ago an anonymous Roman wrote, ‘The first provision of any civilised society, after a code of law, is a reliable source of clean water’. Personally, I think the phrase ‘legalised bureaucracy’ in Latin was mistranslated to ‘code of law’. Whichever, planetary and life scientists might well like the adage for themselves: the sentiment applies nicely to active planetary tectonics and to the origin and survival of all conceivable life forms. The Earth has plenty of water at the surface and deep in the mantle. Without the second, the main mantle mineral olivine would be too stiff for the mantle to convect. Heat would build up within until magma formed in great abundance and emerged with a dreadful growl, as it did on Venus about 750 million years ago to repave the entire planet. It simply isn’t possible to think of answering the questions, ‘When did plate tectonics begin and life emerge?’ – let alone ‘How?’ – without first addressing where the Earth’s water came from and when our home world become so richly endowed.

In a very practical sense, these are the most important issues in geochemistry. Francis Albarède, of the École normale supérieure de Lyon, President of the European Association for Geochemistry and the first geochemist to deploy a multicollector, inductively coupled, plasma-source mass spectrometer, is a fitting person to review where the subdiscipline stands on them. (An MC-ICPMS is a tool for which many still yearn hopelessly.) His views appeared as a ‘Progress’ (a rare kind of Nature article) in the 29 October 2009 issue of Nature (Albarède, F. 2009. Volatile accretion history of the terrestrial planets and dynamic implications. Nature, v. 461, p. 1227-1233). The article casts doubt on the long-held views that when the Moon formed after a giant impact on the Earth, both bodies lost huge masses of volatiles, including water, and that Earth’s water-rich nature stemmed from repeated bombardment by volatile-rich comets up to about 3800 Ma.

Geochemical data are now available from a comet (Hyakutaki) and it contains twice the amount of deuterium relative to hydrogen that is in terrestrial seawater. The D/H ratio of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites is more Earth-like, and these primitive objects seem a more likely water source than comets. But did cataclysmic formation of the Earth-Moon system dehydrate both bodies and drive off other volatile matter? Planets and smaller bodies formed by gravitational accretion of solids that condensed from the initially hot gas or nebula that dominated the proto-solar system. Experiments show that condensation of the elements occurs in three discrete temperature ranges, separated by ranges in which few elements condense. Above around 1300 K the most refractory elements condensed, including oxides of some elements (Ca, Fe, Mg, Si) that now make silicate minerals, including the dominant mantle mineral olivine. Between 900-1200 K the alkali metals and some of the elements (chalcophile) that readily combine with sulfur emerged in solid form. In the third step from 500-800 K the more volatile chalcophile elements, including lead, and halogens condense, leaving four (Hg, O, N, C) that can take on solid form only below about 300 K. Interestingly, the proportions of volatile elements relative to refractory ones in the Earth, Moon and Martian meteorites are very low compared with those in carbonaceous chondrites. It is likely that volatile elements only accreted to the Inner Planets in small amounts before being swept to the outer reaches by an intense solar wind as the Sun was powering up, i.e. before nebular temperatures had fallen below about 1000 K. From that stems the inescapable conclusion that none of these planets were endowed with much water in their earliest forms.

Proportions of the lead isotopes ²⁰⁶Pb and ²⁰⁴Pb from terrestrial sulfide mineral deposits define a near-perfect linear relationship with the ages of mineralisation, from which an age can be estimated for the time the element lead appeared on Earth. That age is 4400 Ma; about 110 Ma younger than the actual age of the planet, and matches apparent ages derived from I-Xe and Pu-Xe decay schemes; iodine and xenon are volatile elements. This strongly supports the idea that 500-800 K condensates arrived late, and other evidence indicates that they and water ice were delivered by carbonaceous chondrite material falling towards the Sun from far beyond the orbits of the giant planets, once the early solar wind had lessened. That is, the Earth’s oceans formed very early in its history, and the mantle gained its water from them once hydrated lithosphere could founder deep into the evolving mantle by subduction. Albarède also summarises fascinating new ideas about the different course followed by Venus and Mars from essentially the same starting point. His ‘Progress’ is not difficult to read, and by marking the start of a new consensus in planetary evolution is of vital interest to all Earth scientists

Extraterrestrial water is also the subject of a Great Quest by NASA and other space agencies, though sadly an attempt on 9 October to prove that there is ice on the lunar surface, by hurling a US$79 million spacecraft at an obscure polar crater, produced no sensible results. Ironically, a couple of weeks later, three papers appeared in Science that document passive remote sensing evidence that the Moon contains a lot more water than long assumed (the most revealing is: Pieters, C.M. and 28 others 2009. Character and spatial distribution of OH/H₂O on the surface of the Moon seen by M³ on Chandrayaan-1. Science, v. 326, p. 568-572). The Apollo samples  astonished geologists when they proved to be almost completely anhydrous, any signs of minor hydration being ascribed to contamination after collection. The Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M³) aboard India’s first lunar mission Chandrayaan is a hyperspectral imaging device that operates in the visible to SWIR range of EM wavelengths (0.4 – 3.0 mm). That range includes SWIR wavelengths beyond 2.4 mm where OH^–, water and water ice have large absorption features that are masked in terrestrial remote sensing by the high moisture content of Earth’s atmosphere. Pieters et al. attempted to model hydroxyl and water content in the lunar surface, and discovered significant amounts (a few tenths of a percent) in the polar regions. That they got results when the Moon was fully illuminated by the Sun suggests that this is not due to ice hidden from heating in shadows, but to minerals that contain molecularly bound water and hydroxyl ions. That begs the question of how the water got there. One possibility is the late arrival of volatile condensates as above, another that it is due to hydrogen (protons) from the solar wind reducing iron in silicate minerals to metallic iron and combination with the oxygen released. Expect loud hurrahs from devotees of Star Trek and NASA because one prerequisite of civilised society seems to be there on the Moon. But judging from the bureaucracies involved in space, getting the funds to use it will not be easy.

The front cover of the August 2009 issue of Geology could be mistaken for an exaggerated oblique aerial view of part of Iran’s Zagros Mountains, well known for their dissected salt domes. It is, however, a simulation of an aerial oblique using digital elevation data from the Valles Marineris area on Mars (Adams et al. 2009. Salt tectonics and collapse of Hebes Chasma, Valles Marineris, Mars. Geology, v.  37, p. 691-694). Hebes Chasma is a roughly oval, steep-sided depression the margins of which show clear signs of some kind of erosion. However, the depression has no outlet, so looks quite bizarre by terrestrial standards: and it is not the only such feature. At its core is a pericline of material that was formerly buried deeper than the flanks of the chasma, which are pretty much horizontal. Unlike the larger, nearby Valles Marineris, Hebes Chasma cannot have formed by erosion of the surface by a huge mass of flowing water, yet 100 thousand cubic kilometres of rock has simply disappeared. Explaining such a gigantic, weird feature taxes the imagination, but the authors do come up with a hypothesis. They reckon that the 10⁵ km³ of material became some kind of thin, briny slurry during an early Martian heating event, which drained downwards into a vast aquifer. For that to happen demands a thick, subsurface layer of dirty ice that melted, and an extremely porous substrate able to channel away the escaping muddy brine. How the pericline formed is not explained, except that it appears in a lab model made of sand, glass beads and ductile silicone polymer, when the silicone drained out through slots in the model’s base. There is plenty of evidence that the surroundings of the chasma collapsed spectacularly, and if the pericline formed by the rising of low-density material dominated by ductile salts (or ice) then it is a likely story. But where did the 100 thousand km³ of gloopy brine go? My guess it followed a secret passage to emerge into the far larger Valles Marineris… Even if there is a crewed mission to Mars, to land anywhere near Valles Marineris would be suicidal, it is so precipitous. So, this is yet another Martian mystery that will linger in a febrile kind of way.

At present there are only two reliable means of surveying variations in the Earth’s gravitational field: at the surface using gravimeters and from space, by processing measurements the height of the ocean surface from radar measurements or by accurately measuring the variation in distance between two satellite travelling in tandem over the Earth’s surface. The last is used by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) designed by NASA and the German Space Agency. It is the only realistic means of usefully precise gravity surveys over Antarctica. A truly multinational team (von Frese, R.R.B. et al. 2009. GRACE gravity evidence for an impact basin in Wilkes Land, Antarctica. Geochemistry,Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 10, Q02014, doi:10.1029/2008GC002149 – on-line journal) has discovered a prominent positive free-air gravity anomaly over a roughly 500-km diameter subglacial basin in Wilkes Land. A basin filled with low-density ice would normally give a negative gravitational ‘signature’, so the positive anomaly suggests either unusually dense crustal rocks beneath it, or that the mantle is unusually close to the surface; i.e. the crust is thin. The authors suggest that the central anomaly is surrounded by roughly concentric circular features, and that it is a hitherto unsuspected impact structure, three time larger than the Chicxulub structure (also mapped by gravity data off the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico) that caused an upward bulge of the mantle. To my eye, the hypothesis only becomes convincing when concentric circles are drawn around the undoubted major anomaly, and the evidence for them is scant compared with the similarly detected structures of Mars and the Moon. What intrigues the authors is the position of the anomaly on a Permian continental reconstruction, It is at the antipode of the Siberian Traps flood basalt province, implicated strongly in the end-Permian mass extinction: the most devastating known. This harks back to speculation that the undoubted Chicxulub structure and caused the mantle to melt beneath its antipode to form the Deccan Traps…

Limestones dated at around 470 Ma in Sweden contain highly altered chondritic meteorites, ranging in mass up to 3.4 kg and up to 20 cm across, along with chromite grains and high iridium. There are so many that investigators have estimated a flux of extraterrestrial debris that was a hundred times greater than at present. The remarkable repository is matched in age by sediments rich in chromites in central China. The Darriwilian Stage (460-470 Ma) of the Ordovician is also notable for evidence of powerful downslope sediment movement in many continental margin sequences. John Parnell of Aberdeen University reviews the many megabreccias or olistostromes of this geologically short time span (Parnell, J. 2009. Global mass wasting at continental margins during Ordovician high meteorite influx. Nature Geoscience, v. 2, p. 57-61). Most seem to be associated with continental margins of the mid-Ordovician Southern Hemisphere. While some occur at what were probably seismically unstable volcanic arcs, most are associated with stable carbonate platforms. Together with the link in time to evidence for enhanced meteorite flux, this association suggests slope failure associated with large impacts. However, the megabreccias are so widespread that they are unlikely to have been formed by a single tsunami resulting from one giant impact. Indeed there is no evidence for a catastrophic event, either as a large crater or evidence for mass extinction: the mid Ordovician was a time of rising faunal diversity (see The Great Ordovician Diversification in September 2008 issue of EPN). Parnell calculates that there may have been as many as 10 Chicxulub-sized impactors per million years during the Darriwilian, but the lack of catastrophic consequences suggests that the megabreccias may have resulted from a great many smaller events, probably of bodies less than 300 m across. That would also explain the lack of global evidence traditional sought to identify impacts, such as iridium, glass spherules and shocked mineral grains. If he is correct, then other olistostromes of different ages in aseismic settings could point to extraterrestrial causes.

Experiments on formation of organic compounds by impacts

Many mechanisms have been speculatively proposed for the origin of complex organic chemicals from which life may have originated on Earth. The best known of these is the 1929 Oparin-Haldane hypothesis that life began with simple organic compounds formed from methane and ammonia in the early atmosphere, followed by more complex compounds formed in the seas through a variety of reactions. This was tested by Miller and Urey in the 1950s, using electrical discharges through a simulation of such a reducing atmosphere, but current views are that the early atmosphere was rich in CO₂ and nitrogen rather than reduced methane and ammonia. Another possibility is synthesis of organic compounds as a result of impact energy; very abundant early in Earth’s history. This idea has been tested experimentally using a propellant gun to create high-velocity impacts into a mixture of solid carbon, iron, nickel, water and nitrogen: a highly simplified scenario of ordinary chondrites bombarding atmosphere and ocean (Furukawa,Y. et al. 2009. Biomolecule formation by oceanic impacts on early Earth. Nature Geoscience, v. 2, p. 62-66). The experiments were performed under conditions that excluded possible contamination. Yet they yielded a wealth of organic molecules, including fatty acids, amines and an amino acid (glycene) found in DNA. Scaling up the experimental yields to the mass of meteoritic material accreted to the Earth during the Hadean Eon (of the order of 10 ²⁴ g), the authors estimate that at least 10¹⁷ g of organic material would have been present in the surface environment by the time life eventually emerged. Furukawa et al. rule out the delivery of ready-made organics by carbonaceous chondrites, in which a great variety has been found. As well as their decomposition by the heat of entry, the lack of metallic iron in carbonaceous chondrites would promote oxidation rather than reduction of organic compounds preformed in early evolution of the Solar System.

Moon-forming impact dated

One of the major discoveries that arose from the lunar samples returned by the Apollo astronauts was that the pale-coloured lunar highlands were made almost entirely of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar: they are made of anorthosite. In the early 1970s Joe Smith of the University of Chicago realised that the only way vast amounts of such single-mineral igneous rocks could have formed was by massive fractional crystallisation. Low-density feldspar must have floated on top of what had been literally a magma ocean. Although Smith did not put forward the idea that a molten moon had formed through a giant collision between the Earth and a passing Mars-sized planet, it was his concept that pointed strongly in that direction. Inevitably, much of the Earth would also have been melted by such a monstrous catastrophe – material that eventually became the Moon had probably been vaporised before condensing to form our satellite.

The Apollo samples are still objects of research, especially as new analytical methods develop. One such new method is the dating of single, tiny zircons; even of their individual zones. Later impacts on the Moon formed a variety of breccias, samples of which are handy as they include fragments of many rock types in one specimen. One of these has helped zero-in on just when the magma ocean began to crystallise (Nemchin, A. et al. 2009. Timing of crystallization of the lunar magma ocean constrained by the oldest zircon. Nature Geosciences, v. 2, p. 133-136). In fact advanced mass spectrometry dated 41 tiny spots in a single half-millimetre zircon grain, revealing a spectrum of ages between <4.35 Ga and a maximum of 4.417 ± 0.006 Ga. The oldest marks the minimum age for the start of crystallisation of the molten Moon and thus for the impact that formed the Moon. For comparison, the earliest material found on Earth – also a zircon but one transported in sediment to become part of a much younger sandstone – is 4.404 Ga old. The authors suggest that the bulk of the lunar highland crust had solidified within 100 Ma of the collision

Sometime early in its history the Earth underwent two gigantic redistributions of its chemistry: a gargantuan collision that formed the Moon; separation of a metal plus sulfide core from a silicate remainder. These ‘set the scene’ for all subsequent geological (and perhaps biological) evolution. The current theory about core formation stems from a marked disparity between Hf-W and U-Pb geochronology of the mantle. The first suggests a metal-secreting event about 30 Ma after formation of the Solar System – tungsten is siderophile and would have become depleted in the mantle following segregation of a metallic core. The second points to lead partitioning into a sulfide mass descent to the core around 20-100 Ma later; assuming that lead is chalcophile. The key to explaining the disparity and validating the dual core formation hypothesis lies in establishing just how chalcophile lead is, relative to other metals that are present in the mantle (Lagos, M. et al. 2008. The Earth’s missing lead may not be in the core. Nature, v. 456, p. 89-92). The German and Russian geochemists set up experiments to determine directly the partition coefficients of lead and the other ‘volatile’ elements cadmium, zinc, selenium and tellurium between metal, sulfide and silicate melts at mantle pressures. They found that Pb and Cd are moderately chalcophile and lithophile, but never siderophile; Zn favours silicate melts, and is exclusively lithophile under mantle conditions; Se and Te are both chalcophile and siderophile, so would enter the core in both molten sulfide and metal.

The measured partition coefficients give a basis for comparing the relative proportions of the volatile elements estimated in the mantle with those predicted by the two-event model of core formation. This elegant approach strongly suggests that sulfide or iron-nickel metal segregation from the mantle to the core can explain neither the mantle abundances of the five ‘volatile’ elements nor the lead-isotope ratios in the mantle. It even questions the existence of terrestrial sulfur in the core. The postulated Moon-forming mega-impact alone could have produced the measured geochemical features of the mantle as a result of vaporisation of ‘volatile’ elements.

Mantle heat transfer by radiation

After some early speculation about efficient heat transfer in the mantle by radiation, it became generally accepted that convection and conduction dominate at depth in the Earth. Yet the Stefan-Boltzmann law has the radiant energy flux of a body increasing proportionally to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. So at deep mantle temperatures of up to 4300 K radiation ought to be significant unless mantle minerals become opaque at high pressures. Mantle mineralogy is dominated by iron-magnesium silicates that adopt the perovskite structure. High-pressure experiments with perovskites reveal surprisingly high transparency to visible and near-infrared radiation (Keppler, H. et al. 2008. Optical absorption and radiative thermal conductivity of silicate perovskite to 125 gigapascals. Science, v. 322, p. 1529-1532).  It seems that a higher than expected radiative contribution to heat transfer should stabilise large plume structures in the zone above the core-mantle boundary.

There are two major issues concerning the Archaean mantle: was the mantle hotter than it is now; was it in a reduced or oxidised state? The first has implications for Archaean plate tectonics. If loss of the higher radioactive heat produced in the mantle was accomplished by processes similar to those today, i.e. dominantly by mid-ocean volcanism the Archaean geotherm would have been similar to today’s and plate tectonics would have been similar. If this means of heat loss could not cope, then temperatures would increase more rapidly with depth, with implications for the style of plate tectonics, especially subduction. A mantle with reducing conditions would be expected to emit reduced gases, such as methane, as well as carbon dioxide, to produce a reducing atmosphere. If oxidising conditions prevailed, then CO₂ would be a dominant emission to the atmosphere. There have been arguments over these two aspects of the Archaean for decade, but now they may have been resolved (Berry, A.J. et al. 2008. Oxidation state of iron in komatiitic melt inclusions indicates hot Archaean mantle. Nature, v. 455, p. 960-963). One factor alone allowed the arguments to damp down: A 2.7 Ga ultramafic lava flow from Zimbabwe preserved a pristine sample of the original magma in the form of small glass blobs trapped in olivine. Measured proportions of Fe(II) and Fe(III) in a melt indicate those in its source, and hence the redox state of the source, mantle peridotite. The Zimbabwe melt inclusions are similar in this respect to those found in modern mid-ocean ridge basalts; they show a high degree of reduction. In turn that suggests that the melting that formed them was almost anhydrous, otherwise dissociation of water would have added oxygen that would have upped the content of Fe(III) in the melt. Experiments show that the degree of anhydrous partial melting of peridotite needed to form ultramafic magma is compatible only with temperatures around 1700ºC, about 400 degrees hotter than those that form modern basalt magma. Significant volumes of the late Archaean mantle, and by extension that of earlier times, had to have been a great deal hotter than it is today.

It has been more than 3 decades since the Mariner 10 mission took a close look at the surface of the innermost planet Mercury. In January 2008 NASA’s MESSENGER spacecraft flew past and the 4 July issue of Science contained a special section on the early observations (Several reports 2008. Messenger Special Section. Science, v. 321, p. 58-94). These involve images, spectral observations, laser altimetry, estimates of chemistry in Mercury’s surrounding space and measurements of the mercurial magnetic field. The data bear on surface mineralogy, geological structures, regolith formation, cratering – especially the giant Caloris Basin, and evidence for volcanism.

Oh dear; water on the Moon…

The accepted wisdom about the Moon is that it is and always has been supremely dry. That notion stems from analyses of every single solid rock brought back by the Apollo astronauts, and the probability that the Moon formed from incandescent vapour blasted into orbit by a giant collision between the original Earth and an errant planet as big as Mars. Water and indeed most volatile elements and compounds ought to have been driven off the orbiting gas and debris that coalesced to form the Moon around 4.5 Ga ago. Most people believe that more or less everything the astronauts dragged back to Houston has been analysed: not so. There are millions of glass beads that constitute a sizeable fraction of the lunar regolith. Some of these turn out to be volatile rich, and may have been blown out by early lunar volcanism (Saal, A.E. et al. 2008. Volatile content of lunar volcanic glasses and the presence of water in the Moon’s interior. Nature, v. 454, p. 192-195). If the glasses are volcanic in origin, that implies there is water in the Moon’s mantle. So, you might ask, how come the Moon is not a vibrant place rather than being as dead as a doorknob? The Earth is so interesting partly because it is a wet planet. The Moon has very little in the way of heat production, so even if its mantle contained hydrous phases, it cannot reach basalt solidus temperatures unless energy is delivered mightily by impacts. That did happen around 4 Ga, when the lunar maria formed and became floored by gigantic floods of basalt. Yet those basalts are extremely dry, thereby posing a bit of a question for Saal and his colleagues.

See also: Chaussidon, M. 2008. The early Moon was rich in water. Nature, v. 454, p. 170-172.